I. HEALTH & DISEASE — OVERVIEW
A HEALTH — DEFINITION
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Definition | Health does NOT simply mean absence of disease or physical fitness ⭐ |
| Complete definition | A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being ⭐ |
| Health affected by | (i) Genetic disorders, (ii) Infections, (iii) Lifestyle (food, water, rest, exercise, habits) |
| Importance | Healthy people = more efficient → increased productivity → economic prosperity → increased longevity → reduced infant & maternal mortality |
Maintaining Good Health
- Balanced diet, personal hygiene, regular exercise
- Yoga — practised since time immemorial for physical & mental health
- Awareness about diseases, vaccination, proper waste disposal
- Vector control, food & water hygiene
B DISEASE — DEFINITION
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Definition | When functioning of one or more organs/systems is adversely affected, characterised by appearance of various signs & symptoms |
| Two broad groups | Infectious diseases & Non-infectious diseases |
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| TYPE | DETAIL | EXAMPLES |
|---|---|---|
| Infectious | Easily transmitted from one person to another ⭐ | Common Cold, AIDS, Typhoid, Malaria |
| Non-infectious | Not transmitted; Cancer is the major cause of death ⭐ | Cancer |
C PATHOGENS
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Definition | Disease-causing organisms ⭐ |
| Include | Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi, Protozoans, Helminths |
| Most parasites are | Pathogens (cause harm to host by living in/on them) ⭐ |
| Adaptation | Must survive host environment — e.g., survive low pH of stomach & resist digestive enzymes ⭐ |
II. COMMON DISEASES IN HUMANS
★ MASTER TABLE — ALL DISEASES
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| DISEASE | CAUSATIVE AGENT | TYPE | ORGAN / SYSTEM | DIAGNOSTIC TEST | KEY SYMPTOMS |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Typhoid | Salmonella typhi ⭐ | Bacterium | Small intestine → blood | Widal test ⭐⭐ | High fever (39–40°C), weakness, stomach pain, constipation, headache |
| Pneumonia | S. pneumoniae & H. influenzae ⭐ | Bacteria | Alveoli of lungs | — | Fever, chills, cough; severe: lips & nails turn gray-bluish ⭐ |
| Common Cold | Rhino viruses ⭐ | Virus | Nose & respiratory passage (NOT lungs) ⭐ | — | Nasal congestion, discharge, sore throat, cough; 3–7 days |
| Malaria | Plasmodium (P. vivax, P. malariae, P. falciparum) ⭐ | Protozoan | Liver cells → RBCs | — | Chill & high fever (recurring every 3–4 days) |
| Amoebiasis | Entamoeba histolytica ⭐ | Protozoan | Large intestine | — | Constipation, pain, cramps, stools with mucus & blood clots |
| Ascariasis | Ascaris (roundworm) ⭐ | Helminth | Intestine | — | Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anaemia |
| Filariasis | Wuchereria (W. bancrofti & W. malayi) ⭐ | Helminth | Lymphatic vessels (lower limbs) | — | Chronic inflammation, gross deformities |
| Ringworm | Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton ⭐ | Fungi | Skin, Nails, Scalp | — | Dry, scaly lesions; intense itching |
| Syphilis | Treponema pallidum ⭐⭐⭐ | Bacterium (STD) | Reproductive tract | — | Sexually transmitted |
| Gonorrhoea | Neisseria gonorrhoeae ⭐⭐⭐ | Bacterium (STD) | Reproductive tract | — | Sexually transmitted |
| Genital warts | Human papilloma virus (HPV) ⭐⭐⭐ | Virus (STD) | Genital skin / mucosa | — | Sexually transmitted |
| Tuberculosis | Mycobacterium tuberculosis | Bacterium (air-borne, NOT STD) | Lungs | — | Air-borne — trap option in STD lists |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: RE-NEET 2026
Syphilis (Treponema pallidum), Gonorrhoea (Neisseria gonorrhoeae) and Genital warts (Human papilloma virus) are sexually transmitted; Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) is air-borne, NOT sexually transmitted.
A TYPHOID
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Pathogen | Salmonella typhi (bacterium) ⭐ |
| Entry | Through contaminated food & water → enters small intestine → migrates to other organs through blood ⭐ |
| Symptoms | Sustained high fever (39–40°C), weakness, stomach pain, constipation, headache, loss of appetite |
| Severe cases | Intestinal perforation & death |
| Diagnostic test | Widal test ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Famous case | Typhoid Mary (Mary Mallon) — a cook; typhoid carrier who spread disease for years through food she prepared |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2012, 2019, 2020, 2024
Typhoid — Salmonella typhi; enters small intestine via contaminated food/water; confirmed by Widal test.
B PNEUMONIA
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Pathogens | Streptococcus pneumoniae & Haemophilus influenzae ⭐ |
| Organ affected | Alveoli (air-filled sacs) of lungs ⭐ |
| Pathology | Alveoli get filled with fluid → severe respiratory problems |
| Symptoms | Fever, chills, cough, headache; severe: lips & finger nails turn gray to bluish ⭐ |
| Transmission | Inhaling droplets/aerosols from infected person; sharing glasses & utensils ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2011, 2020, 2021
Pneumonia — S. pneumoniae & H. influenzae; infects alveoli; transmitted by droplets/aerosols or sharing utensils.
C COMMON COLD
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Pathogen | Rhino viruses ⭐ |
| Organ affected | Nose & respiratory passage — NOT lungs ⭐⭐ |
| Symptoms | Nasal congestion & discharge, sore throat, hoarseness, cough, headache, tiredness |
| Duration | Usually 3–7 days |
| Transmission | Droplets from cough/sneezes — inhaled directly OR transmitted through contaminated objects (pens, books, cups, doorknobs, keyboard, mouse) |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2011, 2012, 2024
Common cold = Rhino viruses; infects nose & respiratory passage, NOT lungs.
D MALARIA
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Pathogen | Plasmodium (Protozoan) — P. vivax, P. malariae, P. falciparum ⭐ |
| Most serious | P. falciparum → malignant malaria → can be fatal ⭐ |
| Infectious form | Sporozoites ⭐⭐ |
| Vector | Bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito ⭐ |
| Two hosts required | Human (host) & Mosquito (vector + host) ⭐ |
Life Cycle in Human ⭐⭐
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| STEP | EVENT |
|---|---|
| 1 | Sporozoites enter through mosquito bite |
| 2 | Multiply in LIVER CELLS first ⭐ |
| 3 | Then attack RED BLOOD CELLS (RBCs) ⭐ |
| 4 | RBCs RUPTURE |
| 5 | Release HAEMOZOIN (toxic substance) ⭐⭐ |
| 6 | Causes CHILL & HIGH FEVER (recurring every 3–4 days) ⭐ |
Life Cycle in Mosquito ⭐⭐
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| STEP | EVENT |
|---|---|
| 1 | Female Anopheles bites infected human |
| 2 | Parasites enter mosquito body |
| 3 | FERTILISATION & DEVELOPMENT occur in MOSQUITO'S GUT ⭐ |
| 4 | Parasites multiply to form SPOROZOITES |
| 5 | Stored in SALIVARY GLANDS of mosquito ⭐ |
| 6 | Injected into next human host during bite |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2010, 2024
Haemozoin = toxic substance released upon RBC rupture → causes chill & high fever.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2020
Sporozoites = infectious form entering human body.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2011, 2012
Sporozoites stored in salivary glands of mosquito; fertilisation in mosquito gut.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2020, 2023
P. falciparum = most serious/fatal malaria.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2026
Correct order of Plasmodium life cycle — Female mosquito injects sporozoites into humans during bite → Sporozoites reach the liver through blood → Parasites reproduce asexually in liver cells, bursting them and releasing into blood → Parasites reproduce asexually in RBCs, bursting the cells → Gametocytes develop in RBCs.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: RE-NEET 2026
Plasmodium reproduces ASEXUALLY in both liver cells and RBCs; gametocytes develop in RBCs (not in mosquito gut); FERTILISATION takes place in the mosquito's gut.
E AMOEBIASIS (AMOEBIC DYSENTERY)
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Pathogen | Entamoeba histolytica (Protozoan) ⭐ |
| Organ affected | Large intestine ⭐ |
| Symptoms | Constipation, abdominal pain, cramps, stools with excess mucus & blood clots ⭐ |
| Transmission | Houseflies act as mechanical carriers ⭐ → transmit parasite from faeces → food |
| Source of infection | Drinking water & food contaminated with faecal matter |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2015, 2021
Amoebiasis — E. histolytica; large intestine; houseflies = mechanical carriers.
F ASCARIASIS
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Pathogen | Ascaris (common roundworm; helminth) ⭐ |
| Organ affected | Intestine (intestinal parasite) |
| Symptoms | Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anaemia, blockage of intestinal passage |
| Transmission | Eggs excreted with faeces → contaminate soil, water, plants → infection through contaminated water, vegetables, fruits ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2013
Ascariasis — eggs of parasite contaminate soil, water, plants.
G ELEPHANTIASIS / FILARIASIS
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Pathogen | Wuchereria (W. bancrofti & W. malayi) — filarial worms (helminths) ⭐ |
| Organ affected | Lymphatic vessels (usually lower limbs) ⭐; genital organs also often affected |
| Pathology | Slowly developing chronic inflammation of organs where they live for many years |
| Result | Gross deformities |
| Transmission | Bite by female mosquito vectors ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2013, 2018, 2020, 2021, 2023, 2024
Filariasis — Wuchereria; chronic inflammation of lymphatic vessels (lower limbs); transmitted by female mosquito.
H RINGWORM
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Pathogens | Fungi — Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton ⭐ |
| Parts affected | Skin, Nails, Scalp ⭐ |
| Symptoms | Dry, scaly lesions on various body parts; intense itching |
| Favourable conditions | Heat & moisture help fungi grow ⭐ → thrive in skin folds (groin, between toes) |
| Transmission | From soil; or sharing towels, clothes, comb of infected persons |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2021, 2023, 2024
Ringworm — Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton; skin, nails, scalp; heat & moisture.
I PREVENTION & CONTROL
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| DISEASE TYPE | PREVENTION MEASURES |
|---|---|
| Food/Water-borne (Typhoid, Amoebiasis, Ascariasis) | Proper disposal of waste & excreta; periodic cleaning & disinfection of water reservoirs, pools, cesspools, tanks; personal & public hygiene |
| Air-borne (Pneumonia, Common Cold) | Above measures + avoid close contact with infected persons or their belongings ⭐ |
| Vector-borne (Malaria, Filariasis, Dengue, Chikungunya) | Avoid water stagnation; clean coolers; use mosquito nets; introduce fishes like Gambusia in ponds (feed on mosquito larvae) ⭐; spray insecticides; wire mesh on doors & windows ⭐ |
🔑 Dengue & Chikungunya are transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes (different vector from malaria).
III. IMMUNITY
A DEFINITION
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Definition | The overall ability of the host to fight disease-causing organisms, conferred by the immune system ⭐ |
| Two types | (i) Innate Immunity & (ii) Acquired Immunity |
B INNATE IMMUNITY
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Type | Non-specific ⭐ |
| Present | At the time of birth ⭐ |
| Mechanism | Provides different types of barriers to entry of foreign agents |
Four Types of Barriers ⭐⭐⭐
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| BARRIER TYPE | COMPONENTS | FUNCTION |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Physical barriers | Skin (main barrier) ⭐; Mucus coating of epithelium lining respiratory, GI & urogenital tracts ⭐ | Prevent entry of micro-organisms; trap microbes |
| 2. Physiological barriers | Acid in stomach (HCl); Saliva in mouth; Tears from eyes ⭐ | Prevent microbial growth |
| 3. Cellular barriers | PMNL-Neutrophils; Monocytes; Natural Killer cells (type of lymphocyte) in blood; Macrophages in tissues ⭐ | Phagocytose & destroy microbes ⭐ |
| 4. Cytokine barriers | Interferons — proteins secreted by virus-infected cells ⭐ | Protect non-infected cells from further viral infection ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2021, 2022, 2023
Innate immunity barriers — Physical (Skin + Mucus), Physiological (Stomach acid + Saliva + Tears), Cellular (Neutrophils + Monocytes + NK cells + Macrophages), Cytokine (Interferons).
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2025
Innate immunity is the type of immunity present at the time of birth and is a non-specific type of defence in the human body.
C ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Type | Pathogen-specific ⭐ |
| Key property | Memory ⭐⭐ |
Primary vs Secondary Response ⭐⭐⭐
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| RESPONSE | ENCOUNTER | INTENSITY | DETAIL |
|---|---|---|---|
| Primary response | First encounter with pathogen | Low intensity ⭐ | Initial response |
| Secondary (Anamnestic) response | Subsequent encounter with same pathogen | Highly intensified ⭐⭐ | Due to memory of first encounter |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2022
Primary response = low intensity (first encounter); Secondary (anamnestic) = highly intensified (subsequent encounter; memory-based).
Two Types of Lymphocytes ⭐⭐⭐
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| LYMPHOCYTE | FUNCTION | IMMUNE RESPONSE TYPE |
|---|---|---|
| B-lymphocytes | Produce an army of proteins (Antibodies) in response to pathogens ⭐ | Humoral immune response (antibody-mediated) ⭐ |
| T-lymphocytes | Do NOT secrete antibodies but help B cells produce them ⭐; Mediate Cell-Mediated Immunity (CMI) ⭐ | Cell-mediated immune response ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2013, RE-NEET 2024
B-cells produce antibodies (humoral); T-cells mediate CMI (help B-cells but don't secrete antibodies themselves).
Antibody Structure ⭐⭐
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Composition | Four peptide chains |
| Light chains | Two small chains ⭐ |
| Heavy chains | Two longer chains ⭐ |
| Representation | H₂L₂ ⭐ |
| Types | IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG |
| Found in | Blood → hence called humoral immune response |
| Variable region | N-terminal — carries the antigen binding site ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Constant region | C-terminal of both heavy and light chains ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Bonds | Heavy and light chains held together by disulfide bonds ⭐⭐⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2025
The antigen binding site of an antibody is located at the N-TERMINAL (variable) region — NOT at the C-terminal region.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2025
The constant regions of both heavy and light chains lie at the C-terminus of the antibody molecule.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2025
The heavy and light chains of an antibody are held together by disulfide bonds.
Cell-Mediated Immunity (CMI) ⭐⭐⭐
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Mediated by | T-lymphocytes ⭐ |
| Key role | Body differentiates 'self' from 'non-self' ⭐ |
| Graft rejection | CMI (T-cell response) is responsible for graft rejection ⭐⭐ |
| Requirement | Tissue matching & Blood group matching essential before transplant; patient takes immuno-suppressants for life |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2015, 2017, 2019, 2022
Graft rejection — due to cell-mediated immune response (T-cells); body distinguishes self from non-self.
D ACTIVE vs PASSIVE IMMUNITY
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| FEATURE | ACTIVE IMMUNITY | PASSIVE IMMUNITY |
|---|---|---|
| How acquired | Host exposed to antigens (living/dead microbes or proteins) → antibodies produced in host body ⭐ | Ready-made antibodies directly given to protect body ⭐ |
| Speed | Slow; takes time for full effective response ⭐ | Immediate protection |
| Examples | Vaccination; Natural infection | Colostrum (IgA) ⭐; Antibodies from mother through placenta ⭐; Anti-tetanus; Anti-snake venom |
| Memory generated | Yes | No |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2015, 2016, 2019, 2020, RE-NEET 2024
Active = host produces antibodies (slow); Passive = ready-made antibodies given; Colostrum = yellowish fluid, initial days of lactation, rich in IgA, passive immunity to infant.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: RE-NEET 2026
Colostrum, secreted by the mother during the initial days of lactation, is abundant in IgA antibodies.
🔑 Foetus receives antibodies from mother through placenta = passive immunity.
E VACCINATION & IMMUNISATION
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Principle based on | Memory property of immune system ⭐⭐ |
| Vaccine = | Antigenic proteins of pathogen OR inactivated/weakened pathogen ⭐ |
| Mechanism | Vaccine introduced → antibodies produced → neutralise pathogen during actual infection; also generate memory B & T cells for rapid response on subsequent exposure |
Special Cases ⭐⭐
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| CASE | TYPE | DETAIL |
|---|---|---|
| Tetanus, Snakebite | Passive immunisation ⭐ | Quick immune response needed → directly inject preformed antibodies (antitoxin / antivenom) ⭐ |
| Hepatitis B vaccine | Recombinant DNA technology | Antigenic polypeptides produced in yeast ⭐ |
| Polio drops | Active immunisation | Contain attenuated pathogens (weakened harmless viruses) ⭐ |
| Diphtheria vaccine | Active immunisation | Contains inactivated toxin (toxoid) ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2015, 2016
Polio drops = attenuated pathogens; Diphtheria = inactivated toxin (toxoid).
⚡ EXAM TRAP: KEY
Tetanus & Snakebite = passive immunisation (preformed antibodies needed urgently).
F ALLERGIES
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Definition | Exaggerated response of immune system to certain antigens present in environment ⭐ |
| Substances | Allergens |
| Antibody type | IgE ⭐⭐ |
| Common allergens | Mites in dust ⭐, Pollens, Animal dander |
| Symptoms | Sneezing, Watery eyes, Running nose, Difficulty in breathing |
| Caused by release of | Histamine & Serotonin from Mast cells ⭐⭐ |
| Treatment drugs | Anti-histamine, Adrenalin, Steroids ⭐ |
| Modern trend | More children in metro cities suffer from allergies & asthma → due to sensitivity to environment (protected early life → lowered immunity) |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2024
Common allergens = mites in dust, pollens, animal dander; IgE antibodies; histamine & serotonin from mast cells.
G AUTO-IMMUNE DISEASE
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Basis | Acquired immunity based on ability to differentiate foreign organisms from self-cells |
| Auto-immunity | Due to genetic and other unknown reasons, body attacks self-cells ⭐ |
| Result | Damage to body |
| Example | Rheumatoid arthritis ⭐⭐ |
| Other examples | Psoriasis, Vitiligo |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2016, 2018, 2022
Auto-immune disease — body attacks self-cells; example = Rheumatoid arthritis.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET TRAP
Alzheimer's disease is NOT an auto-immune disease.
H IMMUNE SYSTEM — LYMPHOID ORGANS
Components of Immune System: Lymphoid organs + Tissues + Cells + Soluble molecules (antibodies).
Primary vs Secondary Lymphoid Organs ⭐⭐⭐
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| TYPE | ORGANS | FUNCTION |
|---|---|---|
| Primary | Bone Marrow & Thymus ⭐⭐ | Immature lymphocytes differentiate into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes ⭐ |
| Secondary | Spleen, Lymph nodes, Tonsils, Peyer's patches (small intestine), Appendix ⭐ | Provide sites for interaction of lymphocytes with antigen → proliferate to become effector cells |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2024
Primary = Bone Marrow + Thymus; Secondary = Spleen, Lymph nodes, Tonsils, Peyer's patches, Appendix.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: RE-NEET 2026
Tonsils and Spleen are secondary lymphoid organs; Bone marrow and Thymus are primary lymphoid organs.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2025
After maturation in primary lymphoid organs, lymphocytes migrate to secondary lymphoid organs/tissues — Spleen, Lymph nodes and Peyer's patches — for interaction with antigens.
Individual Lymphoid Organs ⭐⭐
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| ORGAN | FEATURES |
|---|---|
| Bone Marrow | Main lymphoid organ; ALL blood cells including lymphocytes are produced here ⭐⭐ |
| Thymus | Lobed organ near heart, beneath breastbone ⭐; large at birth → reduces with age → very small at puberty |
| Both Bone Marrow & Thymus | Provide micro-environments for development & maturation of T-lymphocytes ⭐⭐ |
| Spleen | Large, bean-shaped organ ⭐; contains lymphocytes & phagocytes; acts as filter of blood (traps blood-borne microorganisms) ⭐; has large reservoir of erythrocytes ⭐ |
| Lymph nodes | Small solid structures at different points along lymphatic system; trap antigens → activate lymphocytes → cause immune response ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2024
Bone marrow = main lymphoid organ producing all blood cells; Thymus = lobed, near heart, beneath breastbone; Both provide micro-environment for T-lymphocyte maturation.
MALT ⭐⭐⭐
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Full form | Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue ⭐ |
| Location | Within the lining of major tracts — Respiratory, Digestive & Urogenital tracts ⭐ |
| Proportion | Constitutes about 50% of lymphoid tissue in human body ⭐⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2017, RE-NEET 2024
MALT = 50% of lymphoid tissue in human body; located in respiratory, digestive & urogenital tracts.
IV. AIDS
A OVERVIEW
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Full form | Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome ⭐ |
| NOT a congenital disease | Deficiency of immune system acquired during lifetime ⭐ |
| First reported | 1981 |
| Causative agent | Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV) ⭐ |
| HIV belongs to | Retrovirus group ⭐ |
| HIV structure | Envelope enclosing RNA genome ⭐; contains two identical molecules of single-stranded RNA and two molecules of reverse transcriptase ⭐ |
| Time lag | Between infection & appearance of AIDS symptoms = few months to many years (usually 5–10 years) ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2016
HIV = enveloped retrovirus; contains 2 ssRNA molecules + 2 reverse transcriptase molecules.
B TRANSMISSION
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| MODE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| (a) | Sexual contact with infected person |
| (b) | Transfusion of contaminated blood / blood products |
| (c) | Sharing infected needles (intravenous drug abusers) |
| (d) | Infected mother → child through placenta |
| NOT transmitted by mere touch | HIV spreads only through body fluids ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2015
Semen can transfer HIV, Hepatitis B, Ebola; Chikungunya is mosquito-borne (NOT semen).
High-Risk Groups
- Multiple sexual partners
- Intravenous drug abusers
- Repeated blood transfusion patients
- Children born to HIV-infected mothers
C MECHANISM OF HIV ACTION
HIV Enters Macrophages ⭐⭐⭐
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| STEP | EVENT |
|---|---|
| 1 | HIV enters body |
| 2 | Enters MACROPHAGES ⭐ |
| 3 | RNA genome replicates to form VIRAL DNA (using enzyme REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE) ⭐⭐ |
| 4 | Viral DNA INCORPORATED into HOST CELL's DNA ⭐ |
| 5 | Directs infected cell to PRODUCE VIRUS PARTICLES |
| 6 | Macrophages act like HIV FACTORY ⭐ |
🔑 SIMULTANEOUSLY: HIV enters Helper T-lymphocytes (TH) → Replicates and produces progeny viruses → Released in blood → Attack other TH cells → PROGRESSIVE DECREASE in TH lymphocytes.
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| STAGE | SYMPTOMS |
|---|---|
| During decrease | Bouts of fever, diarrhoea, weight loss ⭐ |
| Severe immuno-deficiency | Cannot fight infections — succumbs to Mycobacterium (bacteria), viruses, fungi, parasites like Toxoplasma |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2010, 2014, 2015, 2023
HIV → enters macrophages & Helper T-cells → progressive decrease in TH → immunodeficiency.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2016
Reverse transcriptase converts RNA → DNA.
D DIAGNOSIS & TREATMENT
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Diagnostic test | ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay) ⭐⭐ |
| Treatment | Anti-retroviral drugs — only partially effective ⭐ (prolong life but cannot prevent death) |
| Prevention | Best option (no cure) |
| Organisations | NACO (National AIDS Control Organisation) ⭐ & NGOs |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: RE-NEET 2024
ELISA = diagnostic test for AIDS; NACO & NGOs for AIDS awareness.
V. CANCER
A BASICS
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Definition | Breakdown of regulatory mechanisms controlling cell growth & differentiation ⭐ |
| Normal cells | Show Contact Inhibition — contact with other cells inhibits uncontrolled growth ⭐⭐ |
| Cancer cells | Have lost contact inhibition ⭐ → continue to divide → form masses called tumors |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2012, 2016
Normal cells = contact inhibition; Cancer cells = lost contact inhibition → uncontrolled division → tumors.
B TYPES OF TUMORS
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| FEATURE | BENIGN TUMOR | MALIGNANT TUMOR |
|---|---|---|
| Growth | Confined to original location ⭐ | Grow very rapidly; invade & damage surrounding normal tissues ⭐ |
| Spread | Do NOT spread to other body parts | Spread to distant sites through blood ⭐ |
| Damage | Cause little damage | Starve normal cells (compete for nutrients); start new tumors at distant sites |
| Metastasis | Absent | Present ⭐⭐⭐ = most feared property |
| Cells called | — | Neoplastic or tumor cells ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: RE-NEET 2024
Metastasis = cells sloughed from malignant tumors reach distant sites through blood → start new tumors = MOST FEARED property.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2025
Neoplastic characteristics of cells = a mass of proliferating cells, rapid growth of cells, and invasion & damage to surrounding tissue; being confined to the original location is a feature of BENIGN tumours, not of neoplastic (malignant) cells.
C CAUSES OF CANCER (CARCINOGENS)
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| CARCINOGEN TYPE | EXAMPLES | EFFECT |
|---|---|---|
| Ionising radiation | X-rays, Gamma rays ⭐ | DNA damage → neoplastic transformation |
| Non-ionising radiation | UV rays ⭐ | DNA damage → neoplastic transformation |
| Chemical | Tobacco smoke chemicals ⭐ | Major cause of lung cancer |
| Biological | Oncogenic viruses ⭐ | Contain viral oncogenes |
Oncogenes ⭐⭐
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| TYPE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Viral oncogenes | Cancer-causing genes in oncogenic viruses ⭐ |
| Cellular oncogenes (c-onc) / Proto-oncogenes | Found in normal cells; when activated under certain conditions → lead to oncogenic transformation ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2016 TRAP
Cancer mutations do NOT inhibit telomerase — they actually activate telomerase to keep cancer cells immortal.
D CANCER DETECTION
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| TECHNIQUE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Biopsy + Histopathological studies | Suspected tissue → thin sections → stained → examined under microscope |
| Blood & bone marrow tests | For increased cell counts (leukemias) |
| Radiography | Uses X-rays ⭐ |
| CT (Computed Tomography) | Uses X-rays to generate 3-dimensional image of internal objects ⭐ |
| MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) | Uses strong magnetic fields & non-ionising radiations → accurately detect pathological & physiological changes in living tissue ⭐ |
| Antibodies | Against cancer-specific antigens → detect certain cancers |
| Molecular biology techniques | Detect genes with inherited susceptibility to cancer |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2010
MRI uses strong magnetic fields & non-ionising radiations.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2025
Computed tomography (CT) and Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are used to detect cancers of internal organs.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2025
In leukaemia, blood cell counts are INCREASED (not decreased).
E CANCER TREATMENT
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| TREATMENT | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Surgery | Physical removal of tumor |
| Radiation therapy | Tumor cells irradiated lethally; care of surrounding normal tissues |
| Chemotherapy | Drugs used to kill cancerous cells; some specific for particular tumors; side effects: hair loss, anaemia |
| Immunotherapy | Biological response modifiers like α-Interferon ⭐ → activates immune system → helps destroy tumors |
| Most cancers treated by | Combination of surgery, radiotherapy & chemotherapy |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: RE-NEET 2024
α-Interferon = biological response modifier; activates immune system against tumors.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2025
α-Interferon activates the cancer patient's immune system and helps in destroying the tumour; it is the biological response modifier.
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2025
Chemotherapeutic drugs are used to kill CANCEROUS cells and are NOT biological response modifiers.
VI. DRUGS AND ALCOHOL ABUSE
A THREE MAJOR GROUPS OF ABUSED DRUGS
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| DRUG GROUP | SOURCE | RECEPTOR / ACTION | ROUTE | EFFECT |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Opioids (Heroin / Morphine) | Latex of Poppy plant Papaver somniferum ⭐⭐ | Bind to opioid receptors in CNS & GI tract ⭐ | Snorting & Injection | Depressant — slows down body functions ⭐ |
| Cannabinoids (Marijuana, Hashish, Charas, Ganja) | Inflorescences of Cannabis sativa ⭐ | Interact with cannabinoid receptors in brain ⭐ | Inhalation & Oral ingestion | Effects on cardiovascular system ⭐ |
| Coca alkaloid (Cocaine) | Coca plant Erythroxylum coca (native to South America) ⭐ | Interferes with transport of neurotransmitter dopamine ⭐⭐ | Snorting (commonly) | Potent stimulant of CNS; euphoria & increased energy; excess → hallucinations ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2026
Match-the-list: Nicotine — stimulates adrenal gland to release catecholamines into blood circulation; Morphine — effective sedative and painkiller; Heroin — a depressant that slows down body functions; Cocaine — causes a sense of euphoria and increased energy.
B HEROIN — DETAILED
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Common name | Smack ⭐ |
| Chemical name | Diacetylmorphine ⭐⭐ |
| Preparation | Obtained by acetylation of Morphine ⭐ |
| Morphine source | Extracted from latex of Papaver somniferum (Poppy plant) ⭐ |
| Appearance | White, odourless, bitter crystalline compound |
| Route | Snorting & injection |
| Action | Depressant — slows down body functions ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2018, 2019, 2023, 2024
Heroin = Diacetylmorphine = Smack; from Poppy (Papaver somniferum); acetylation of morphine; depressant.
C CANNABINOIDS — DETAILED
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Source plant | Cannabis sativa ⭐ |
| Plant part used | Flower tops, Leaves, Resin |
| Products | Marijuana, Hashish, Charas, Ganja ⭐ |
| Receptors | Cannabinoid receptors — principally in brain |
| Route | Inhalation & Oral ingestion |
| Effect | On cardiovascular system ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2024
Cannabis sativa → Marijuana, Hashish, Charas, Ganja; effects on cardiovascular system.
D COCAINE — DETAILED
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Common names | Coke or Crack ⭐ |
| Source | Erythroxylum coca (native to South America) ⭐ |
| Mechanism | Interferes with transport of neurotransmitter Dopamine ⭐⭐ |
| Route | Usually snorted |
| Action | Potent stimulant of CNS ⭐ → Euphoria & increased energy |
| Excess dose | Hallucinations ⭐ |
Other Hallucinogenic Plants ⭐
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| PLANT | PROPERTY |
|---|---|
| Atropa belladonna | Hallucinogenic ⭐ |
| Datura | Hallucinogenic ⭐ |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2014, 2023, 2024
Cocaine from Erythroxylum coca; interferes with dopamine transport; CNS stimulant; Atropa belladonna & Datura = hallucinogenic.
E MORPHINE
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Source | Papaver somniferum (Poppy plant) |
| Action | Very effective sedative & painkiller ⭐ |
| Use | Very useful in patients who have undergone surgery |
⚡ EXAM TRAP: RE-NEET 2026
Morphine is used as an effective sedative and painkiller for treating post-surgery patients.
F OTHER DRUGS
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| DRUGS | NORMALLY USED FOR | WHEN MISUSED = |
|---|---|---|
| Barbiturates, Amphetamines, Benzodiazepines | Help patients with depression & insomnia | Drug abuse |
G TOBACCO
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Active alkaloid | Nicotine ⭐ |
| Nicotine action | Stimulates adrenal gland → releases Adrenaline & Nor-adrenaline into blood ⭐ |
| Result | Raises blood pressure & increases heart rate ⭐ |
| CO effect | Smoking increases CO content in blood → reduces concentration of Hb-bound oxygen → oxygen deficiency ⭐ |
| Associated cancers | Lung, Urinary bladder, Throat, Oral cavity (chewing) |
| Associated diseases | Bronchitis, Emphysema, Coronary heart disease, Gastric ulcer |
H ADOLESCENCE & DRUG ABUSE
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Adolescence | Period 12–18 years of age ⭐ |
| Definition | Both a period & process — child becomes mature in attitudes & beliefs ⭐ |
| Bridge between | Childhood & Adulthood ⭐ |
| Vulnerability | Very vulnerable phase of mental & psychological development |
| Causes of abuse | Curiosity, need for adventure/excitement, experimentation, peer pressure, academic stress, media influence, unstable family |
I ADDICTION & DEPENDENCE
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Addiction | Psychological attachment to certain effects — Euphoria & temporary well-being ⭐ |
| Tolerance | With repeated use → tolerance level of receptors increases → respond only to higher doses → leads to greater intake & addiction ⭐ |
| Withdrawal syndrome | If regular dose abruptly discontinued → characterised by Anxiety, Shakiness, Nausea, Sweating ⭐ |
J EFFECTS OF DRUG / ALCOHOL ABUSE
- Reckless behaviour, vandalism, violence
- Excessive dose → coma, death (respiratory/heart failure, cerebral haemorrhage)
- Drop in academic performance
- IV drug users → acquire AIDS & Hepatitis B (shared needles) ⭐
- Both AIDS & Hepatitis B = chronic, ultimately fatal; transmitted via sexual contact or infected blood ⭐
- Chronic use damages nervous system & liver (cirrhosis) ⭐
⚡ EXAM TRAP: NEET 2012
Chronic drug/alcohol use → liver cirrhosis & nervous system damage.
K ANABOLIC STEROIDS — SIDE EFFECTS
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| IN FEMALES | IN MALES |
|---|---|
| Masculinisation (male-like features) ⭐ | Acne |
| Increased aggressiveness | Increased aggressiveness |
| Mood swings, Depression | Mood swings, Depression |
| Abnormal menstrual cycles ⭐ | Reduction of size of testicles ⭐ |
| Excessive hair growth on face & body | Decreased sperm production |
| Enlargement of clitoris | Premature baldness |
| Deepening of voice | Enlargement of prostate gland |
| — | Breast enlargement |
| — | Kidney & liver dysfunction |
L CROSS-CHAPTER LINK — STREPTOKINASE
⚡ EXAM TRAP: RE-NEET 2026
Streptokinase, produced by Streptococcus and modified by genetic engineering, is used as a clot buster for removing clots from blood vessels of myocardial infarction patients. (Also Ch-10 Microbes in Human Welfare.)
VII. RAPID REVISION — KEY COMPARISON TABLES
TABLE 1: All Diseases — Quick Reference
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| DISEASE | PATHOGEN | TYPE | ORGAN | TRANSMISSION |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Typhoid | Salmonella typhi | Bacterium | Small intestine | Food / Water |
| Pneumonia | S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae | Bacteria | Alveoli (Lungs) | Droplets / Aerosols |
| Common Cold | Rhino viruses | Virus | Nose (NOT lungs) | Droplets / Contaminated objects |
| Malaria | Plasmodium | Protozoan | Liver → RBCs | Female Anopheles |
| Amoebiasis | E. histolytica | Protozoan | Large intestine | Houseflies (mechanical carrier) |
| Ascariasis | Ascaris | Helminth | Intestine | Contaminated soil / water / plants |
| Filariasis | Wuchereria | Helminth | Lymphatic vessels | Female mosquito |
| Ringworm | Microsporum / Trichophyton / Epidermophyton | Fungi | Skin / Nails / Scalp | Soil / Shared items |
| Dengue / Chikungunya | — | Virus | — | Aedes mosquito |
| AIDS | HIV (Retrovirus) | Virus | Immune system (TH cells) | Body fluids |
| Syphilis | Treponema pallidum | Bacterium | STD | Sexual contact |
| Gonorrhoea | Neisseria gonorrhoeae | Bacterium | STD | Sexual contact |
| Genital warts | HPV | Virus | STD | Sexual contact |
| Tuberculosis | M. tuberculosis | Bacterium | Lungs | Air-borne (NOT STD) |
TABLE 2: Innate vs Acquired Immunity
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| FEATURE | INNATE | ACQUIRED |
|---|---|---|
| Specificity | Non-specific | Pathogen-specific |
| Present since | Birth | After exposure |
| Memory | No | Yes |
| Types | 4 barriers (Physical, Physiological, Cellular, Cytokine) | Humoral (B-cells) + Cell-mediated (T-cells) |
| Response intensity | Same every time | Primary (low) → Secondary (high / intensified) |
TABLE 3: Active vs Passive Immunity
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| FEATURE | ACTIVE | PASSIVE |
|---|---|---|
| Antibodies produced by | Host body | Given directly (ready-made) |
| Speed | Slow | Immediate |
| Memory | Yes | No |
| Duration | Long-lasting | Short-lived |
| Examples | Vaccination, Natural infection | Colostrum (IgA), Placental transfer, Antitoxin, Antivenom |
TABLE 4: Primary vs Secondary Lymphoid Organs
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| FEATURE | PRIMARY | SECONDARY |
|---|---|---|
| Function | Maturation & differentiation of lymphocytes | Interaction with antigen → effector cells |
| Examples | Bone Marrow, Thymus | Spleen, Lymph nodes, Tonsils, Peyer's patches, Appendix |
TABLE 5: Benign vs Malignant Tumors
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| FEATURE | BENIGN | MALIGNANT |
|---|---|---|
| Spread | Confined to original location | Spread to distant sites (Metastasis) |
| Growth | Slow | Very rapid |
| Damage | Little | Invade & damage surrounding tissue |
| Metastasis | Absent | Present (most feared property) |
TABLE 6: Three Major Drug Groups
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| DRUG | SOURCE PLANT | ACTIVE CHEMICAL | RECEPTOR | EFFECT |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Opioids (Heroin) | Papaver somniferum | Diacetylmorphine (Smack) | Opioid receptors (CNS + GIT) | Depressant |
| Cannabinoids | Cannabis sativa | Cannabinoids | Cannabinoid receptors (Brain) | Cardiovascular effects |
| Cocaine | Erythroxylum coca | Cocaine (Coke / Crack) | Interferes with Dopamine | CNS stimulant; Euphoria |
TABLE 7: Key Diagnostic Tests
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| TEST | DISEASE |
|---|---|
| Widal test | Typhoid |
| ELISA | AIDS |
| Biopsy + Histopathology | Cancer |
| CT (X-ray based 3D) | Internal organ cancers |
| MRI (magnetic + non-ionising radiation) | Pathological / Physiological changes |
TABLE 8: Antibody Structure Lock-Rules
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| FEATURE | DETAIL |
|---|---|
| Formula | H₂L₂ |
| Antigen binding site | N-terminal variable region |
| Constant region | C-terminus of heavy and light chains |
| Chains held by | Disulfide bonds |
VIII. COMMON EXAM TRAPS — QUICK REFERENCE
CONSOLIDATED PYQ Q&A TABLE ⭐⭐⭐
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| TRAP / QUESTION | CORRECT ANSWER |
|---|---|
| Health = absence of disease? | No — complete physical, mental & social well-being |
| Disease-causing organisms called? | Pathogens |
| Typhoid pathogen? | Salmonella typhi (bacterium) |
| Typhoid diagnostic test? | Widal test |
| Typhoid enters which part first? | Small intestine |
| Pneumonia pathogens? | Streptococcus pneumoniae + Haemophilus influenzae |
| Pneumonia affects which part? | Alveoli of lungs |
| Common cold pathogen? | Rhino viruses |
| Common cold affects lungs? | No — nose & respiratory passage ONLY |
| Most serious malaria? | P. falciparum (can be fatal) |
| Malaria infectious form? | Sporozoites |
| Malaria vector? | Infected female Anopheles mosquito |
| Toxic substance causing malarial fever? | Haemozoin (released on RBC rupture) |
| Sporozoites stored where in mosquito? | Salivary glands |
| Fertilisation of malarial parasite occurs in? | Mosquito's gut |
| Plasmodium life cycle order? | Sporozoites injected → liver → asexual in liver cells → asexual in RBCs → gametocytes in RBCs ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Where does Plasmodium reproduce asexually? | Liver cells and RBCs ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Where do gametocytes develop? | In RBCs ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Amoebiasis pathogen? | Entamoeba histolytica |
| Amoebiasis — organ affected? | Large intestine |
| Mechanical carrier for amoebiasis? | Housefly |
| Elephantiasis pathogen? | Wuchereria (W. bancrofti & W. malayi) |
| Elephantiasis affects? | Lymphatic vessels (lower limbs) |
| Ringworm pathogens? | Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton (Fungi) |
| Ringworm favoured by? | Heat & Moisture |
| Gambusia fish used for? | Eating mosquito larvae (biological control) |
| Dengue & Chikungunya vector? | Aedes mosquito |
| Which is NOT sexually transmitted — TB? | Correct — TB is air-borne ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Syphilis pathogen? | Treponema pallidum ⭐⭐ |
| Gonorrhoea pathogen? | Neisseria gonorrhoeae ⭐⭐ |
| Genital warts pathogen? | Human papilloma virus ⭐⭐ |
| Immunity present at birth, non-specific? | Innate immunity ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Acquired immunity — key property? | Memory |
| Primary response — intensity? | Low |
| Secondary (anamnestic) response? | Highly intensified |
| B-lymphocytes produce? | Antibodies (humoral immunity) |
| T-lymphocytes produce antibodies? | No — help B cells; mediate CMI |
| Antibody structure? | H₂L₂ (4 chains: 2 heavy + 2 light) |
| Antigen binding site located at? | N-terminal (variable region) ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Constant region located at? | C-terminus of heavy and light chains ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Heavy and light chains held by? | Disulfide bonds ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Graft rejection — which immunity? | Cell-mediated (T-cells) |
| Active immunity — fast or slow? | Slow |
| Passive immunity examples? | Colostrum (IgA), Placental antibodies, Antitoxin, Antivenom |
| Colostrum is abundant in? | IgA ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Allergy antibody type? | IgE |
| Allergy chemicals released from? | Mast cells (Histamine + Serotonin) |
| Auto-immune disease example? | Rheumatoid arthritis |
| Alzheimer's — auto-immune? | No |
| MALT = what % of lymphoid tissue? | 50% |
| MALT location? | Respiratory, Digestive, Urogenital tracts |
| Primary lymphoid organs? | Bone Marrow + Thymus ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Tonsils and Spleen? | Secondary lymphoid organs ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Lymphocytes migrate after maturation to? | Spleen, Lymph nodes, Peyer's patches ⭐⭐⭐ |
| T-cell maturation occurs in? | Bone Marrow & Thymus (both provide micro-environment) |
| Spleen acts as? | Filter of blood (traps blood-borne microorganisms) |
| Spleen reservoir of? | Erythrocytes |
| AIDS — congenital disease? | No (acquired) |
| HIV = what type of virus? | Retrovirus (envelope + RNA genome) |
| HIV first enters which cells? | Macrophages (then Helper T-cells) |
| Enzyme that converts RNA → DNA? | Reverse transcriptase |
| HIV factory? | Macrophages |
| HIV targets which lymphocytes? | Helper T-lymphocytes (TH) |
| AIDS diagnosis test? | ELISA |
| AIDS treatment effective? | Only partially (anti-retroviral drugs) |
| NACO full form? | National AIDS Control Organisation |
| Normal cells show? | Contact inhibition |
| Cancer cells lost? | Contact inhibition |
| Metastasis = ? | Spread of malignant tumor cells to distant sites through blood |
| Most feared property of malignant tumors? | Metastasis |
| Neoplastic characteristics? | Mass of proliferating cells, rapid growth, invasion & damage to surrounding tissue ⭐⭐⭐ |
| "Confined to original location" describes? | Benign tumour ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Cancer — ionising radiation examples? | X-rays & Gamma rays |
| Cancer — non-ionising radiation? | UV rays |
| Proto-oncogenes in? | Normal cells (when activated → cancer) |
| α-Interferon is a? | Biological response modifier; activates immune system against tumour ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Are chemotherapeutic drugs biological response modifiers? | No ⭐⭐⭐ |
| CT and MRI used for? | Detecting cancers of internal organs ⭐⭐ |
| Blood cell count in leukaemia? | Increased ⭐⭐⭐ |
| MRI uses? | Strong magnetic fields + Non-ionising radiations |
| CT uses? | X-rays (3D image) |
| Heroin chemical name? | Diacetylmorphine |
| Heroin common name? | Smack |
| Heroin obtained by? | Acetylation of Morphine |
| Morphine source plant? | Papaver somniferum (Poppy) |
| Heroin effect? | Depressant; slows down body functions ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Morphine effect? | Effective sedative and painkiller ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Drug for post-surgery pain? | Morphine ⭐⭐ |
| Cocaine source plant? | Erythroxylum coca |
| Cocaine interferes with? | Dopamine transport |
| Cocaine effect? | Euphoria and increased energy ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Cocaine common names? | Coke or Crack |
| Cannabis sativa gives? | Marijuana, Hashish, Charas, Ganja |
| Cannabinoids affect which system? | Cardiovascular |
| Cannabinoid receptors in? | Brain |
| Opioid receptors in? | CNS + Gastrointestinal tract |
| Hallucinogenic plants? | Atropa belladonna, Datura, Cannabis |
| Nicotine effect? | Stimulates adrenal gland to release catecholamines ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Smoking increases what in blood? | CO (carbon monoxide) |
| Smoking reduces? | Hb-bound oxygen concentration |
| Adolescence period? | 12–18 years |
| Tolerance means? | Receptors need higher doses for response (repeated use) |
| Withdrawal syndrome symptoms? | Anxiety, Shakiness, Nausea, Sweating |
| IV drug users at risk for? | AIDS & Hepatitis B |
| Chronic drug use damages? | Nervous system & Liver (cirrhosis) |
| Anabolic steroids in females cause? | Masculinisation, abnormal menstrual cycles, deepened voice |
| Anabolic steroids in males cause? | Reduced testis size, decreased sperm, premature baldness |
| Hepatitis B vaccine produced from? | Yeast (recombinant DNA technology) |
| Polio drops contain? | Attenuated pathogens |
| Tetanus & Snakebite — which immunisation? | Passive (preformed antibodies) |
| Vaccination principle based on? | Memory of immune system |
| Clot buster? | Streptokinase ⭐⭐ |